Scofflaw bicycling: Illegal but rational

Wesley E Marshall

University of Colorado Denver

Daniel Piatkowski

Savannah State University

Aaron Johnson

University of Colorado Boulder

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.2017.871

Keywords: Bicycling, Biking, Behavior, Illegal, Scofflaw


Abstract

Nearly everyone has jaywalked, rolled through a stop sign, or driven a few miles per hour over the speed limit, but most such offenses face no legal consequences. Society also tends to see these relatively minor infractions that almost all people make—though they are unmistakably illegal—as normal and even rational. Bicyclists who break the law, however, seem to attract a higher level of scorn and scrutiny. While the academic literature has exhaustively covered unlawful driving behaviors, there remains little research on bicyclists who break the rules of the road. This paper examines rule-breaking bicyclists and the factors associated with such behaviors. We also explore the question: are bicyclists making rational, albeit illegal, choices—similar to most drivers and pedestrians—or are bicyclists reckless and dangerous? Because it’s proven effective for reaching hard-to-reach populations, we employed a snowball-sampling framework and an online, scenario-based survey completed by nearly 18,000 respondents. Via multi-level statistical analyses, our results suggest that younger people and males tend to exhibit higher levels of illegal bicycling behavior, but even when combining high-risk factors, the overwhelming majority of bicyclists are not reckless. Controlling for the context and social norms of the city where one lives tends to outweigh individual bicyclist characteristics such as race/ethnicity and income. Unlawful drivers and pedestrians tend to rationalize their behaviors as time saving; bicyclists similarly rationalize their illegal behaviors but were more inclined to cite increasing their own personal safety and/or saving energy. Most bicyclists can generally be described as rational individuals trying to function safely and efficiently given the context and norms of where they live and the transportation system put in front of them.

Author Biographies

Wesley E Marshall, University of Colorado Denver

Wes Marshall is an associate professor of Civil Engineering with a joint appointment in Urban and Regional Planning at the University of Colorado Denver. His transportation teaching and research activities focus on creating safer and more sustainable places.

Daniel Piatkowski, Savannah State University

Dan Piatkowski is an assistant professor of Political Science and Public Affairs at Savannah State University. His research focuses on improving communities through design and planning.

Aaron Johnson, University of Colorado Boulder

Aaron Johnson is a doctoral student in sociology at the University of Colorado Boulder. His dissertation work delves deeper into the topics covered in this paper.

References

AAA. (2010). Traffic safety culture index. Washington, D.C.: AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety.

ACS. (2014). American community survey (ACS) 5-year data (2010–2014). Edited by U.S. Census Bureau. Washington, D.C.

Aldred, R. (2010). On the outside: Constructing cycling citizenship. Social & Cultural Geography, 11(1), 35-52. doi: 10.1080/14649360903414593

Aldred, R. (2013). Incompetent or too competent? Negotiating everyday cycling identities in a motor dominated society. Mobilities, 8(2), 252-271. doi: 10.1080/17450101.2012.696342

Aldred, R., & Jungnickel, K. (2010). I didn’t feel like a proper cyclist: Managing problematic and provisional cycling identities. Paper presented at the Bicycle Politics Symposium and Workshop, Lancaster, UK, September 16.

Anderson, M. (2013, June 25). 94% of bike riders wait at red lights, study finds [web log post]. BikePortland.org. Retrieved from http://bikeportland.org/2013/06/25/94-of-bikes-wait-at-red-lights-study-finds-89025

Anderson, M. (2015, May 7). Honolulu installs protected bike lane, sees massive drop in sidewalk biking [web log post]. People for Bikes. Retrieved from www.peopleforbikes.org/blog/entry/honolulu-installs-protected-bike-lane-sees-massive-drop-in-sidewalk-biking.

APR. (1998). Campagne d’affichage Piétons [Poster Campaign Pedestrians]. Paris, France: Association Prévention Routière.

Atkinson, R., & Flint, J. (2001). Accessing hard to reach populations for research: Snowball research strategies. Social Research Update, 33(1), 1–4.

Avico, U., Kaplan, C., Korczak, D., & Van Meter, K. (1988). Cocaine epidemiology in three European Community cities: A pilot study using a snowball sampling methodology. Brussels: European Communities Health Directorate.

Bacchieri, G., Barros, A. J. D., dos Santos, J. V., & Gigante, D. P. (2010). Cycling to work in Brazil: Users profile, risk behaviors, and traffic accident occurrence. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42(4), 1025–1030. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2009.12.009

Badger, E. (2015, January 9). Let’s talk seriously about why cyclists break traffic laws [Web log post]. The Washington Post Wonkblog. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/01/09/lets-talk-seriously-about-why-cyclists-break-traffic-laws/?utm_term=.e52930eee061

Baltar, F., & Brunet, I. (2012). Social research 2.0: Virtual snowball sampling method using Facebook. Internet Research, 22(1), 57–74. doi: 10.1108/10662241211199960

Basford, L., Reid, S., Lester, T., Thomson, J., & Tolmie, A. (2002). Drivers’ perceptions of cyclists. London, UK: Department for Transport.

Beck, K. (2007). Enforce bicycle riding laws. Law and Order 55 (6):82-87.

Becker, G. S. (1974). Crime and punishment: An cconomic approach. In G. S. Becker and W. M. Landes (Eds.), Essays in the Economics of Crime and Punishment (pp. 1–54). Cambridge, MA: The National Bureau of Economic Research.

Benfield, J. A., & Szlemko, W. J. (2006). Internet-based data collection: promises and realities. Journal of Research Practice, 2 (2).

Berk, R. A., & Ray, S. C. (1982). Selection biases in sociological data. Social Science Research, 11(4), 352–398. doi: 10.1016/0049-089x(82)90003-5

Biernacki, P., & Waldorf, D. (1981). Snowball sampling: Problems and techniques of chain referral sampling. Sociological methods & research, 10(2), 141–163.

Brennan, M., Rae, N., & Parackal, M. (1999). Survey-based experimental research via the web: Some observations. Marketing Bulletin, 10, 83-92.

Burns, K., & Novick, L. (directors/producers) (2011). Prohibition [documentary film series]. USA: Florentine Films and WETA.

Burton, N. W., Haynes, M., Wilson, L. A. M., Giles-Corti, B., Oldenburg, B. F., Brown, W. J., Giskes, K., & Turrell, G. (2009). HABITAT: A longitudinal multilevel study of physical activity change in mid-aged adults. BMC Public Health, 9, 76–87. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-9-76

Chappell, B. (2015, July 9). Cyclists can ignore some traffic lights, Paris announces. National Public Radio. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org

Chen, I. G., Elliott, M. R., Durbin, D. R., & Winston, F. K. (2005). Teen drivers and the risk of injury to child passengers in motor vehicle crashes. Injury Prevention, 11(1), 12–17. doi: 10.1136/ip.2004.007617

Chong, S., Poulos, R., Olivier, J., Watson, W. L., & Grzebieta, R. (2010). Relative injury severity among vulnerable non-motorised road users: Comparative analysis of injury arising from bicycle-motor vehicle and bicycle-pedestrian collisions. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42(1), 290–296. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2009.08.006

Codina, E., Kaplan, C. D., Yin, Z., Valdez, A., & Mata, A. (1999). Estimating the extent of injecting heroin use in Laredo, Texas. Journal of Border Health, 4, 3–11.

Coleman, J. S. (1958). Relational analysis: The study of social organization with survey methods. Human Organization, 17, 28-36.

Conner, M., Smith, N., & McMillan, B. (2003). Examining normative pressure in the theory of planned behaviour: Impact of gender and passengers on intentions to break the speed limit. Current Psychology, 22(3), 252–263. doi: 10.1007/s12144-003-1020-8

Constantinou, E., Panayiotou, G., Konstantinou, N., Loutsiou-Ladd, A., & Kapardis, A. (2011). Risky and aggressive driving in young adults: Personality matters. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43 (4), 1323–1331. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2011.02.002

Corbett, C., & Simon, F. (1992). Unlawful driving behavior: A criminological perspective. Crowthorne, England: Transport Research Laboratory.

Daff, M., & Barton, T. (2005). Marking Melbourne’s arterial roads to assist cyclists. ITE 2005 Annual Meeting and Exhibit Compendium of Technical Papers, Melborne, Australia.

Davis, A. J. (1997). Race, Cops, and Traffic Stops. University of Miami Law Review 51 (425).

De Pelsmacker, P., & Janssens, W. (2007). The effect of norms, attitudes and habits on speeding behavior: Scale development and model building and estimation. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 39(1), 6–15. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2006.05.011

Dill, J., & McNeil, N. (2013). Four types of cyclists? Examination of typology for better understanding of bicycling behavior and potential. Transportation Research Record, 2387,129-138. doi: 10.3141/2387-15

Dissanayake, S., & Lu, J. (2002). Analysis of severity of young driver crashes—Sequential binary logistic regression modeling. Statistical Methodology: Applications to Design, Data Analysis, and Evaluation, 1784,108–114. doi: 10.3141/1784-14

Dusek, G. A., Yurova, Y. V. , & Ruppel, C. P. (2015). Using social media and targeted snowball sampling to survey a hard-to-reach population: A case study. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 10, 279–299. Retrieved from http://ijds.org/Volume10/IJDSv10p279-299Dusek0717.pdf

Elinson, Z. (2013, April 13). Bay Area drivers who kill pedestrians rarely face punishment, analysis finds. The Center for Investigative Reporting.

Elvik, R. (2005). Speed and road safety: Synthesis of evidence from evaluation studies. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1908, 59–69. doi: 10.3141/1908-08

Elvik, R. (2012). Speed limits, enforcement, and health consequences. Annual Review of Public Health, 33, 225–238. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031811-124634

Engel, R. S., & Calnon, J. M. (2004). Examining the influence of drivers’ characteristics during traffic stops with police: Results from a national survey. Justice Quarterly, 21(1).

Evans, J. R., & Mathur, A. (2005). The value of online surveys, 15(2), 195–219. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/10662240510590360

Ewing, R., and Cervero, R. (2010). Travel and the built environment. Journal of the American Planning Association, 76(3), 265–294.

Ewing, R., Schmid, T., Killingsworth, R., Zlot, A., & Raudenbush, S. (2003). Relationship between urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(1),118–126.

Fajans, J., & Curry, M. (2001). Why bicyclists hate stop signs. Access Magazine. Retrieved from www.accessmagazine.org

Fincham, B. (2006). Bicycle messengers and the road to freedom. Sociological Review 54, 208–222. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-954X.2006.00645.x

Fincham, B. (2007). ‘Generally speaking people are in it for the cycling and the beer:’ Bicycle couriers, subculture, and enjoyment. Sociological Review, 55(2), 189–202. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-954X.2007.00701.x

Fitzgerald, J. L. (1996). Hidden populations and the gaze of power. Journal of Drug Issues, 26, 5–21.

Fitzpatrick, K., Carlson, P., Brewer, M. A., Wooldridge, M. D., & Miaou, S.-P. (2004). Design speed, operating speed, and posted speed practices (NCHRP 504). Washington D.C.: National Cooperative Highway Research Program.

Fleiter, J. J., Lennon, A., & Watson, B. (2007, October). Choosing not to speed: A qualitative exploration of differences in perceptions about speed limit compliance and related issues. Presented at the meeting of the Australasian Road Safety Research Policing and Education Conference, Melbourne, Australia.

Fleiter, J. J., Lennon, A., and Watson, B. (2010). How do other people influence your driving speed? Exploring the ‘who’ and the ‘how’ of social influences on speeding from a qualitative perspective. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 13(1), 49–62. doi: 10.1016/j.trf.2009.10.002

Forsyth, E., & Silcock, D. T. (1987). The association of traffic offences with road accidents in the Northumbria Police Area. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK: Newcastle University.

Furness, Z. (2010). One less car: Bicycling and the politics of automobility. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University.

Gibby, A. R., Stites, J. L., Thurgood, G. S., & Ferrara, T. C. (1994). Evaluation of marked and unmarked crosswalks at intersections in California. Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration

Gladwell, M. (2015, October 17–19). Thresholds of violence: How school shootings catch on. The New Yorker: Annals of Publc Safety. Paper presented at the Australasian Road Safety Research, Policing and Education Conference. Retrieved from http://acrs.org.au/publications/conference-papers/

Goodyear, S. (2013, May 13). Cyclists aren’t ‘special,’ and they shouldn’t play by their own rules [Web log post]. CityLab. Retrieved from www.citylab.com/

Goodyear, S. (2014, February 4). New York’s cyclists are getting better at following the rules [Web log post]. CityLab. Retrived from www.citylab.com/

Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about Internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59(2), 93–104. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.59.2.93

Götschi, T., Krizek, K. J., McGinnis, L, Lucke, J., & Barbeau, J. (2011). Nonmotorized transportation pilot program evaluation study, phase 2. Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration

Grabar, H. (2013, May). Why we should never fine cyclists [Web log post]. CityLab. Retrived from www.citylab.com/

Granovetter, M. (1978). Threshold models of collective behavior. American Journal of Sociology, 83(6),1420–1443. doi: 10.1086/226707

Granovetter, M., & Strong, R. (1988). Threshold models of diversity: Chinese restaurants, residential segregation, and the spiral of silence. Sociological Methodology, 18, 69–104. doi: 10.2307/271045

Green, F. K. (2003). Red light running. Vermont South, Australia: ARRB Transport Research Ltd.

Griffiths, P., Gossop, M., Powis, B., & Strang, J. (1993). Reaching hidden populations of drug users by privileged access interviewers: Methodological and practical issues. Addiction, 88, 1617–1626.

Groger, L., Mayberry, P. S., & Straker, J. K. (1999). What we didn’t learn because of who would not talk to us. Qualitative Health Research, 9(6), 829–835. doi: 10.1177/104973299129122180

Guttman, L. (1984). What is not what in statistics. Statistical inference revisited. Bulletin of Sociological Methodology, 4, 3–35.

Haglund, M., & Lars Åberg, L. (2000). Speed choice in relation to speed limit and influences from other drivers. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 3(1), 39–51. doi: 10.1016/S1369-8478(00)00014-0

Halsey, A. (2014, August 7). With bike lanes, fewer riders on sidewalk, study says. Washington Post.

Handcock, M. S., & K. J. Gile. (2011). Comment: On the concept of snowball sampling. Sociological Methodology, 41 (1), 367–371. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9531.2011.01243.x

Harris, D. A. (1999). Driving while black: Racial profiling on our nation’s highways. New York: American Civil Liberties Union.

Harzing, A. W. (1997). Response rates in international mail surveys: Results of a 22-country study. International Business Review, 6(6), 641–665.

Hatfield, J., & Fernandes, R. (2009). The role of risk-propensity in the risky driving of younger drivers. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 41(1), 25–35. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2008.08.023

Healy, M. (2001). Multilevel data and their analysis. In Multilevel modelling of health statistics, edited by A.H. Leyland & H. Goldstein. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Heckathorn, D. D., & Jeffri, J. (2001). Finding the beat: Using respondent-driven sampling to study jazz musicians. Poetics, 28 (4), 307–329. doi: 10.1016/S0304-422x(01)80006-1

Henao, A., Piatkowski, D., Luckey, K. S., Nordback, K., Marshall, W. E., & Krizek, K. J. (2015). Sustainable transportation infrastructure investments and mode share changes: A 20-year background of Boulder, Colorado. Transport Policy, 37, 64–71. doi: 10.1016/j.tranpol.2014.09.012

Hendricks, V. M., Blanken, P., & Adriaans, N. (1992). Snowball Sampling: A Pilot Study on Cocaine Use. Rotterdam: IVO.

Herslund, M. B., & Jorgensen, N. O. (2003). Looked-but-failed-to-see-errors in traffic. Accident Analysis and Prevention 35,(6), 885–891. doi: 10.1016/S0001-4575(02)00095-7

Hilkevitch, J. (2013, June 10). City says Dearborn bike signals keeping cyclists in line. Chicago Tribune.

Holson, L. M. (2015, October 20). San Francisco May Let Bicyclists Yield at Stop Signs. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/21/us/san-francisco-may-let-bicyclists-yield-at-stop-signs.html?_r=0

Horton, D. (2006). Environmentalism and the Bicycle. Environmental Politics, 15(1), 41–58.

IIHS. (2007). Status report. Ruckersville, VA: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety.

Inciardi, J. A., & Russe, B. R. (1977). Professional thieves and drugs. International Journal of the Addictions, 12(8):1087–1095.

Internet Live Stats. (2016). Number of Internet users worldwide. Real Time Statistics Project. Accessed May 25 from www.internetlivestats.com/internet-users/

Iversen, H. (2004). Risk-taking attitudes and risky driving behaviour. Transportation Research Part F-Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 7(3), 135–150. doi: 10.1016/j.trf.2003.11.003

Jaffe, E. (2014, August 14). Tired of cyclists riding on the sidewalk? Build more bike lanes [Web log post]. CityLab.

Johnson, M., Charlton, J., & Oxley, J. (2008). Cyclists and red lights—a study of the behaviour of commuter cyclist in Melbourne. Paper presented at the Australasian Road Safety Research, Policing and Education Conference, Adelaide, Australia.

Johnson, M., Charlton, J., Oxley, J., & Newstead, S. (2013). Why do cyclists infringe at red lights? An investigation of Australian cyclists’ reasons for red light infringement. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 50, 840–847. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2012.07.008

Johnson, M., Newstead, S., Charlton, J., & Oxley, J. (2011). Riding through red lights: The rate, characteristics and risk factors of non-compliant urban commuter cyclists. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43(1), 323–328. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2010.08.030

Johnston, L., & Sabin, K. (2010). Sampling hard-to-reach populations with respondent driven sampling. Methodological Innovations Online, 5, 38–48. doi: 10.4256/mio.2010.0017

Joshi, M. S., Senior, V., & Smith, G. P.. (2001). A diary study of the risk perceptions of road users. Health Risk & Society, 3(3), 261–279. doi: 10.1080/13698570120079877

Jung, S. Y., Qin, X., & Noyce, D. A. (2010). Rainfall effect on single-vehicle crash severities using polychotomous response models. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42(1), 213–224. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2009.07.020

Kalton, Graham, & Dallas W. Anderson. (1986). Sampling rare populations. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 149(1), 65–82.

Kanellaidis, G., Golias, J., & Zarifopoulos, K. (1995). A survey of drivers attitudes toward speed limit violations. Journal of Safety Research, 26(1), 31–40. doi: 10.1016/0022-4375(94)00025-5

Kaplan, N. M. (1987). Antihypertensive drugs—How different classes can impact patients coronary heart-disease risk profile and quality-of-life. American Journal of Medicine, 82(1a), 9–14. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(87)90137-9

Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1955). Personal influence: The part played by people in the flow of mass communications. New York: Free Press.

Kelly, J. (2014, July 14). Cyclists explain why they sometimes ride on the sidewalk in downtown D.C. Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com

Kemper, E. A., Springfield, S., & Teddlie, C. (2003). Mixed methods sampling strategies in social science research. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral research (pp. 273–296). Thousands Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.

Khazaal, Y., van Singer, M., Chatton, A., Achab, S., Zullino, D., Rothen, S., Khan, R., Billieux, J., & Thorens, G. (2014). Does self-selection affect samples’ representativeness in online surveys? An investigation in online video game research. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 16(7), e164–e164. doi: 10.2196/jmir.2759

Kidder, J. L. (2005). Style and action—A decoding of bike messenger symbols. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 34(3), 344–367. doi: 10.1177/0891241605274734

Krizek, K. J., Handy, S. L., & Forsyth, A. (2009). Explaining changes in walking and bicycling behavior: Challenges for transportation research. Environment and Planning B-Planning & Design, 36(4), 725–740. doi: 10.1068/b34023

Lavetti, E., & McComb, S. (2014). Examining bicycle safety on a college campus: Observations and rationale for unsafe cycling. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 58th Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL.

Lawson, S.D. (1991). Red-light running: Accidents and surveillance cameras. Basingstoke, England: AA Foundation for Road Safety Research and Birmingham City Council.

Li, F. Z., Fisher, K. J., Brownson, R. C., & Bosworth, M. (2005). Multilevel modelling of built environment characteristics related to neighbourhood walking activity in older adults. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59(7), 558–564. doi: 10.1136/jech.2004.028399

Loskorn, J., Mills, A., Brady, J., Duthie, J., & Machemehl, R. (2010). Effects of bicycle boxes on bicyclist and motorist behavior at intersections. Austin, Texas: University of Texas at Austin.

Lugo, A. E. (2013). CicLAvia and human infrastructure in Los Angeles: ethnographic experiments in equitable bike planning. Journal of Transport Geography, 30, 202–207. doi: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.04.010

Lundman, R. J., & Kaufman, R. L. (2003). Driving while black: Effects of race, ethnicity, and gender on citizen self-reports of traffic stops and police actions. Criminology. doi: 10.1111/J.1745-9125.2003.Tb00986.X

Machin, M. A., & Sankey, K. S. (2008). Relationships between young drivers’ personality characteristics, risk perceptions, and driving behaviour. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 40(2), 541–547. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2007.08.010

Marohn, C. (2014. May 19). Follow the rules, bikers [Web blog post]. Strong Towns. Retrieved from https://www.strongtowns.org/journal/2016/4/21/follow-the-rules-bikers

Marshall, W. E., & Garrick, N. W. (2010). Considering the role of the street network in road safety: A case study of 24 California cities. Urban Design International Journal, 15(3), 133–147.

Marshall, W. E., & Garrick, N. W. (2010). The effect of street network design on walking and biking. Transportation Research Record, 2198, 103–115.

Marshall, W. E., & Garrick, N. W. (2011a). Does street network design affect traffic safety? Accident Analysis and Prevention 43(3), 769–781.

Marshall, W. E., & Garrick, N. W. (2011b). Evidence on why bike-friendly cities are safer for all road users. Journal of Environmental Practice, 13(1), 16–27.

Marshall, W. E., & Garrick, N. W. (2012). Community design & how much we drive. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 5(2), 5–21. doi: 10.5198/jtlu.v5i2.301

Marshall, W. E., Piatkowski, D., & Garrick, N.W. (2015). Community design, street networks, and public health Journal of Transport & Health, 1(4), 326–340. doi: 10.1016/j.jth.2014.06.002i

McLean, K., & Rojek, J. (2016). Traffic stops, race, and measurement. In B. M. Huebner & T. S. Bynum (Eds.), The Handbook of Measurement Issues in Criminology and Criminal Justice. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

McNamara, R. P. (1994). The Times Square hustler: Male prostitution in New York City. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.

Medlin, C., Roy, S., & Chai, T. H. (1999). World Wide Web versus mail surveys: A comparison and report. Paper presented at ANZMAC99 Conference: Marketing in the Third Millennium, Sydney, Australia.

Meggs, J. N. (2010). Bicycle safety and choice: Compounded public cobenefits of the Idaho law relaxing stop requirements for cycling. Berkeley, California: University of California Berkeley.

Meggs, J. N. (2011, September 29). The Idaho law: Allowing safer choice and happier travel [Web log post]. The Meggs Report. Retrived from https://meggsreport.wordpress.com/2011/09/29/the-idaho-law-allowing-safer-choice-and-happier-travel/

Mehta, R., & Sivadas, E. (1995). Comparing response rates and response content in mail versus electronic mail surveys. Journal of the Market Research Society, 37(4), 429–439.

Merton, R. K. (1949). Patterns of influence: A study of interpersonal influence and communications behavior in a local community. In P. F. Lazarfeld and F. Stanton (Eds.), Communications research, (pp. 180–219). New York: Harper.

Milloy, C. (2014, July 8). Bicyclist bullies try to rule the road in D.C. The Washington Post.

Milne, A., & Melin, M. (2014). Bicycling and walking in the United States: 2014 benchmarking report. Washington, D.C.: Alliance for Biking & Walking.

Noland, R., & Quddus, M. (2004). A spatially disaggregate analysis of road casualties in England. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 36(6), 973–984.

O’Brien, S., Tay, R. & Watson, B. (2002). An exploration of Australian driving anger. Proceedings of the Road Safety Research, Policing and Education Conference, Adelaide, South Australia.

O’Rourke, P. J. (2011, April 2). Dear urban cyclists: Go play in traffic. The Wall Street Journal.

ONISR. (2013). La sécurité routière en France: Bilan de l’accidentologie, 2012 (Road Safety in France: 2012 record of road fatalities). Paris, France: Observatoire national interministériel de la sécurité routière (The interministerial national observatory for road safety).

Ouimet, M. C., Morton, B. G. S., Noelcke, E. A., Williams, A. F., Leaf, W. A., Preusser, D. F., & Hartos, J. L. (2008). Perceived risk and other predictors and correlates of teenagers’ safety belt use during the first year of licensure. Traffic Injury Prevention, 9(1), 1–10. doi: 10.1080/15389580701638793

Patrick, J. (1973). A Glasgow gang observed. London: Eyre Methuen.

Penrod, J., Preston, D.B., Cain, R.E., & Starks, M.T. (2003). A discussion of chain referral as a method of sampling hard-to-reach populations. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 14(2), 100–107. doi: 10.1177/1043659602250614

Piatkowski, D., Bronson, R., Marshall, W. E., & Krizek, K. J. (2015). Measuring the impacts of bike-to-work day events and identifying barriers to increased commuter cycling. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 141(4). doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000239

Pollok, M., & Schlitz, M. A. (1988, June). Does voluntary testing matter? How it influences homosexual safer sex. Paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on AIDS, Stockholm, Sweden.

RAC. (2007). Motoring offenses: 1998–2006. Walsall, England: Royal Automobile Club.

Radenbush, S. W, & Bruk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Ramo, D. E., & Prochaska, J. J. (2012). Broad reach and targeted recruitment Using Facebook for an online survey of young adult substance use. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 14(1). doi: 10.2196/jmir.1878

Retting, R. A., Ulmer, R. G., & Williams, A. F. (1999). Prevalence and characteristics of red light running crashes in the United States. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 31(6), 687–694. doi: 10.1016/S0001-4575(99)00029-9

Retting, R. A., Williams, A. F., Farmer, C. M., & Feldman, A. F. (1999). Evaluation of red light camera enforcement in Oxnard, California. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 31(3), 169–174. doi: 10.1016/S0001-4575(98)00059-1

Retting, R. A., Williams, A. F., & Greene, M. A. (1998). Red-light running and sensible countermeasures—Summary of research findings. Traffic Safety, 1640, 23–26. doi: 10.3141/1640-04

Retting, R. A., Williams, A. F., Preusser, D. F., & Weinstein, H. B. (1995). Classifying urban crashes for countermeasure eevelopment. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 27(3), 283–294. doi: 10.1016/0001-4575(94)00068-W

Rhodes, N., & Pivik, K. (2011). Age and gender differences in risky driving: The roles of positive affect and risk perception. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43(3), 923–931. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2010.11.015

Rinella, V. J. (1967). Police brutality and racial prejudice: A first close look. Journal of Urban Law Editors, 45, 773.

Ritter, P., Lorig, K., Laurent, D., & Matthews, K. (2004). Internet versus mailed questionnaires: A randomized comparison. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 6(3), 19–25. doi: 10.2196/jmir.6.3.e29

Roh, S., & Robinson, M. (2009). AgGeographic approach to racial profiling: The microanalysis and macroanalysis of racial disparity in traffic stops. Police Quarterly, 12(2), 137–169.

Rundle, A., Roux, A. V. D., Freeman, L. M., Miller, D., Neckerman, K. M., & Weiss, C. C. (2007). The urban built environment and obesity in New York City: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Health Promotion, 21(4), 326–334.

Sadler, G. R., Lee, H.-C., Lim, R. S.-H., & Fullerton, J. (2010). Recruitment of hard-to-reach population subgroups via adaptations of the snowball sampling strategy. Nursing & Health Sciences,12(3), 369–374. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-2018.2010.00541.x

Salganik, M. J., & Heckathorn, D. D. (2004). Sampling and estimation in hidden populations using respondent-driven sampling. Sociological Methodology, 34(1), 193–240.

Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2006). The Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Schmitt, A. (2015, May 13). The Oregonian: Run a red light and kill 3 kids? Just a tragic accident [Web log post]. Streetsblog USA. Retrieved from http://usa.streetsblog.org/2015/05/13/the-oregonian-run-a-red-light-and-kill-3-kids-just-a-tragic-accident/

Scholl, N., Mulders, S., & Drent, R. (2002). Online qualitative market research: Interviewing the world at a fingertip. Qualitative Market Research, 5(3), 210–223.

Schramm, A. J., Rakotonirainy, A., & Haworth, N. L. (2008). How much does disregard of road rules contribute to bicycle-vehicle collisions? Paper presented at the National Conference of the Australasian College of Road Safety, Queensland, Australia.

Simcoe, L. (2015, January 14). Cyclists rolling through stop signs ‘acting rationally.’ Metro News, Calgary, Canada. Retrieved from http://www.metronews.ca/

Singh, P., Pandey, A., & Aggarwal, A. (2007). House-to-house survey vs. snowball technique for capturing maternal deaths in India: A search for a cost-effective method. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 125(4), 550–556.

Smith, C. B. (1997). Casting the net: Surveying an Internet population. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(1).

Stradling, S. G., Campbell, M., Allan, I. A., Gorell, R. S. J., Hill, J. P., Winter, M. G., & Hope, S. (2003). The speeding driver: Who, how and why? Edinburg, Scotland: Transport Research Planning Group.

Streeton, R., Cooke, M., & Campbell, J. (2004). Researching the researchers: Using a snowballing technique. Nurse researcher, 12(1), 35–46. doi: 10.7748/nr2004.07.12.1.35.c5929

Stromberg, J. (2014, May 9). Why cyclists should be able to roll through stop signs and ride through red lights [Web log post]. Vox. Retrived from http://www.vox.com/2014/5/9/5691098/why-cyclists-should-be-able-to-roll-through-stop-signs-and-ride

Subramanian, S. V. , Jones, K., & Duncan, C. (2003). Multilevel methods for public health research. In I. Kawachi & L. F. Berkman (Eds.), Neighborhoods and Health (pp. 65–111). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Sudman, S., & Freeman, H. (1988). The use of network sampling for locating the seriously ill. Medical Care, 26(10), 992–999.

Tabnak, F., & Sun, R. (2000). Need for HIV/AIDS early identification and preventive measures among middle-aged and elderly women. American Journal of Public Health, 90(2), 287–288. doi: 10.2105/Ajph.90.2.287

Thompson, S. K., & Collins, L. A. (2002). Adaptive sampling in research on risk-related behaviors. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68, S57–S67.

Trow, M. (1957). Right-wing radicalism and political intolerance. New York: Arno Press.

Tuckel, P., & Milczarski, W. (2014). Bike lanes + bike share program = bike safety: An observational study of biking behavior in lower and central manhattan. New York: Hunter College.

Tuckel, P., Milczarski, W., & Rubin, J. (2014). For many New York City motorists a red light does not mean stop: An observational study of the incidence of red light running in New York City. New York: Hunter College.

Urmson, C. (2015, May 11). The view from the front seat of the Google self-driving car. Backchannel. Retrived from https://backchannel.com/the-view-from-the-front-seat-of-the-google-self-driving-car-46fc9f3e6088#.9zqtylxfy

USDOT. (2014). Speeding. In Traffic safety facts. Washington, D.C.: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

Valdez, A., & Kaplan, C. D. (1999). Reducing selection bias in the use of focus groups to investigate hidden populations: The case of Mexican-American gang members from South Texas. Drugs and Society, 14, 209–224.

Valdez, A., Kaplan, C. D., & Codina, E. (2000). Psychopathy among Mexican American gang members: A comparative study. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44, 46–58.

Van Meter, K. (1990). Methodological and design issues: Techniques for assessing the representatives of snowball samples. NIDA Research Monograph, 31–43.

Van Selm, M., & Jankowski, N. W. (2006). Conducting online surveys. Quality and Quantity, 40(3), 435–456. doi: 10.1007/s11135-005-8081-8

Vingilis, E., Seeley, J., Wiesenthal, D. L., Wickens, C. M., Fischer, P., & Mann, R. E. (2013). Street racing video games and risk-taking driving: An Internet survey of automobile enthusiasts. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 50, 1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2012.09.022

Vivanco, L. (2013). Reconsidering the bicycle: An anthropological perspective on a new (old) thing. New York: Routledge.

Warren, P., Tomaskovic-Devey, D., Smith, W., Zingraff, M., & Mason, M. (2006). Racial disparity in police stops. Criminology, 44, 707–738. doi: 10.1111/J.1745-9125.2006.00061.X

Watters, J. K., & Biernacki, P. (1989). Targeted sampling: Options for the study of hidden populations. Social Problems, 36(4), 416–430. doi: 10.1525/sp.1989.36.4.03a00070

Whitehead, L. (2011). Methodological issues in Internet-mediated research: A randomized comparison of Internet versus mailed questionnaires. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 13(4). doi: 10.2196/jmir.1593

Whyte, W. F. (1955). Street corner society; the social structure of an Italian slum. Enl. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Winship, C., & Mare, R. D. (1992). Models for sample selection bias. Annual Review of Sociology, 18, 327–350.

Wong, T. (2008). Purposive and snowball sampling in the study of ethnic and mainstream community organizations. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Western Political Science Association, San Diego, CA.

Wood, J. M., Lacherez, P. F., Marszalek, R. P., & King, M. J. (2009). Drivers’ and cyclists’ experiences of sharing the road: Incidents, attitudes and perceptions of visibility. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 41(4), 772–776. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2009.03.014

Wright, R., & Decker, S. H. (1997). Armed robbers in action. Boston: Northeastern University Press.

Wright, R., Decker, S. H., Redfern, A. K., & Smith, D. L. (1992). A snowball’s chance in hell: Doing fieldwork with active residential burglars. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 29, 148–161.

Zavestoski, S., & Agyeman, J. (2015). Incomplete streets: Processes, practices and possibilities, Routledge equity, justice and the sustainable city series. London; New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.