Does urban form influence automobile trip frequency in Accra, Ghana?

Nana Yaw Oppong-Yeboah

Seoul National University

Tae-Hyoung Tommy Gim

Seoul National University

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.2020.1411


Abstract

Sustainable mobility is gaining increasing attention as it is seen as an approach to effectively reduce automobile travel and simultaneously encourage other modes of travel. To this end, it is imperative that scholars provide planners and policymakers with adequate empirical evidence to enable them to make informed decisions. In this sense, this study attempts to understand how socio-demographics, urban form (town center proximity-walk accessibility and other locational characteristics), perception and satisfaction pertaining to public transport influence automobile trip frequency. It particularly employs a partial least square structural equation modelling approach with the aim of appreciating the complexities in the land use-travel behavior interaction with the aid of data from the 2012 National Household Travel Survey of Ghana. The paper finds that the main explanatory factors identified in the land use-transportation-travel behavior literature are deemed significant in the case of Accra with socio-demographics yielding the largest magnitude. Also, public transport satisfaction turns out to have a negative influence on automobile trips.


Author Biographies

Nana Yaw Oppong-Yeboah, Seoul National University

Graduate Student Department of Environmental Planning Graduate School of Environmental Studies

Tae-Hyoung Tommy Gim, Seoul National University

Assistant Professor Graduate School of Environmental Studies and Interdisciplinary Program in Landscape Architecture Associate Director Environmental Planning Institute

References

Acheampong, R. A., Agyemang, F. S. K., & Abdul-Fatawu, M. (2017). Quantifying the spatio-temporal patterns of settlement growth in a metropolitan region of Ghana. GeoJournal, 82(4), 823–840.

Addo, S. T. (2002). Provision of urban transport services in Accra. Paper presented at the SSATP Annual Conference and Stakeholders Meeting.

Aditjandra, P., Cao, X. J., & Mulley, C. (2012). Understanding neighborhood design impact on travel behavior: An application of structural equations model to a British metropolitan data. Transportation Research Part A, 46, 22–32.

Aditjandra, P., & Mulley, C. (2016). Exploring changes in public transport use and walking following residential relocation: A British case study. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 9(3), 1–19.

Agyemang, E. (2009). Traffic congestion: The bane of a bus rapid transit system in Accra, Ghana? Trodheim, Norway: Norwegian University of Science and Technology.

Agyemang, E. (2017). Mode choice for long distance trips: Evidence from the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area of Ghana. Journal of Transport Geography, 64(August), 150–157. doi: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.09.003

Atlas of Urban Expansion. (2016). Retrieved from atlasofurbanexpansion.org/cities/view/Accra

Bagley, M. N., & Mokhtarian, P. L. (2002). The impact of residential neighborhood type on travel behavior: A structural equation modeling approach. The Annals of Regional Science, 36(2), 279–297. doi: 10.1007/s001680200083

Banerjee, U., & Hine, J. (2016). Interpreting the influence of urban form on household car travel using partial least squares structural equation modelling: Some evidence from Northern Ireland. Transportation Planning and Technology, 39(1), 24–44. doi: 10.1080/03081060.2015.1108081

Bentler, P. M., & Huang, W. (2014). On components, latent variables, PLS, and simple methods: Reactions to Rigdon’s rethinking of PLS. Long-Range Planning, 47(3), 138–145. doi: 10.1016/j.lrp.2014.02.005

Best, H., & Lanzendorf, M. (2005). Division of labor and gender differences in metropolitan car use: An empirical study in Cologne, Germany. Journal of Transport Geography, 13(2), 109–121.

Boarnet, M. G., Forsyth, A., Day, K., & Oakes, J. M. (2011). The street level built environment and physical activity and walking: Results of a predictive validity study for the Irvine Minnesota Inventory. Environment and Behavior, 43(6), 735–775. doi: 10.1177/0013916510379760

Brownstone, D., & Golob, T. F. (2009). The impact of residential density on vehicle usage and energy consumption. Journal of Urban Economics, 65(1), 91–98. doi: 10.1016/j.jue.2008.09.002

Cao, X. J. (2010). Exploring causal effects of neighborhood type on walking behavior using stratification on the propensity score. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 42(2), 487–504. doi: 10.1068/a4269

Cao, X. J. (2016). How does neighborhood design affect life satisfaction? Evidence from Twin Cities. Travel Behavior and Society, 5, 68–76. doi: 10.1016/j.tbs.2015.07.001

Cao, X. J., & Ettema, D. (2014). Satisfaction with travel and residential self-selection: How do preferences moderate the impact of the Hiawatha light rail transit line? Journal of Transport and Land Use, 7(3), 93. doi: 10.5198/jtlu.v7i3.485

Cao, X. J., Mokhtarian, P. L., & Handy, S. L. (2007). Do changes in neighborhood characteristics lead to changes in travel behavior? A structural equations modeling approach. Transportation, 34(5), 535–556.

Cao, X. J., Mokhtarian, P. L., & Handy, S. L. (2009). Examining the impacts of residential self-selection on travel behaviour: A focus on empirical findings. Transport Reviews, 29(3), 359–395.

Cervero, R. (2013). Linking urban transport and land use in developing countries. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 6(1), 7–24.

Cobbinah, P. B., & Amoako, C. (2014). Urban sprawl and the loss of peri-urban land in Kumasi, Ghana. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering 8(1), 313–322.

de Abreu e Silva, J., Morency, C., & Goulias, K. G. (2012). Using structural equations modeling to unravel the influence of land-use patterns on travel behavior of workers in Montreal. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 46(8), 1252–1264. doi: 10.1016/j.tra.2012.05.003

De Vos, J., Mokhtarian, P. L., Schwanen, T., Van Acker, V., & Witlox, F. (2016). Travel mode choice and travel satisfaction: Bridging the gap between decision utility and experienced utility. Transportation, 43(5), 771–796. doi: 10.1007/s11116-015-9619-9

De Vos, J., & Witlox, F. (2017). Travel satisfaction revisited. On the pivotal role of travel satisfaction in conceptualising a travel behaviour process. Transportation Research Part A, 106, 364–373.

Deutsch, K., Yoon, S., & Goulias, K. (2013). Modeling travel behavior and sense of place using a structural equation model. Journal of Transport Geography, 28, 155–163.

Dickerson, A., Hole, A. R., & Munford, L. A. (2014). The relationship between well-being and commuting revisited: Does the choice of methodology matter? Regional Science and Urban Economics, 49, 321–329. doi: 10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2014.09.004

Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2008). Happiness: Unlocking the mysteries of psychological wellbeing. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Dijkstra, T. K., & Henseler, J. (2015). Consistent partial least squares path modeling. MIS Quarterly, 39(2), 297–316. doi: 10.25300/misq/2015/39.2.02

Ding, C., Wang, D., Liu, C., Zhang, Y., & Yang, J. (2017). Exploring the influence of built environment on travel mode choice considering the mediating effects of car ownership and travel distance. Transportation Research Part A, 100, 65–80. doi: 10.1016/j.tra.2017.04.008

Doan, P., & Oduro, C. (2012). Patterns of population growth in peri-urban Accra, Ghana. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 36(6), 1306–1325.

Easton, S., & Ferrari, E. (2015). Children’s travel to school—the interaction of individual, neighbourhood and school factors. Transport Policy, 44, 9–18.

Etminani-ghasrodashti, R., & Ardeshiri, M. (2015). Modeling travel behavior by the structural relationships between lifestyle, built environment and non-working trips. Transportation Research Part A, 78, 506–518. doi: 10.1016/j.tra.2015.06.016

Ettema, D., Friman, M., Gärling, T., Olsson, L. E., & Fujii, S. (2012). How in-vehicle activities affect work commuters’ satisfaction with public transport. Journal of Transport Geography, 24, 215–222. doi: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.02.007

Ettema, D., Gärling, T., Eriksson, L., Friman, M., Olsson, L. E., & Fujii, S. (2011). Satisfaction with travel and subjective well-being: Development and test of a measurement tool. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behavior, 14(3), 167–175. doi: 10.1016/j.trf.2010.11.002

Ettema, D, Gärling, T., Olsson, L. E., & Friman, M. (2010). Out-of-home activities, daily travel, and subjective well-being. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 44(9), 723–732.

Ewing, R. (1997). Is Los Angeles-style sprawl desirable? Journal of the American Planning Association, 63, 107–126.

Ewing R., Bartholomew, K., Winkelman, S., Walters, J. & Anderson, G. (2008) Urban development and climate change. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 1(3), 201–216, doi: 10.1080/17549170802529316

Ewing, R., & Cervero, R. (2010). Travel and the built environment. Journal of the American Planning Association, 76(3), 265–294. doi: 10.1080/01944361003766766

Ewing, R., Greenwald, M. J., Zhang, M., Bogaerts, M., & Greene, W. (2013). Predicting transportation outcomes for LEED projects. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 33(3), 265–279. doi: 10.1177/0739456X13482978

Ewing, R., Tian, G., Goates, J., Zhang, M., Greenwald, M. J., Joyce, A., & Greene, W. (2014). Varying influences of the built environment on household travel in nine diverse regions of the United States. Urban Studies, 52(13), 2330–2348.

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.

Frank, L., Bradley, M., Kavage, S., Chapman, J., & Lawton, T. K. (2008). Urban form, travel time, and cost relationships with tour complexity and mode choice. Transportation, 35(1), 37–54. doi: 10.1007/s11116-007-9136-6

Frank, L., & Kavage, S. (2009). A national plan for physical activity: The enabling role of the built environment. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 6(s2), S186–S195.

Frumkin, H. (2002). Urban Sprawl and Public Health. Public Health Reports, 117(3), 201–217. doi: 10.1093/phr/117.3.201

Galster, G., Hanson, R., Ratcliffe, M., Wolman, H., Coleman, S., & Freihage, J. (2001). Wrestling sprawl to the ground: Defining and measuring an elusive concept. Housing Policy Debate, 12(4), 681–717.

Gehrke, S. R., & Clifton, K. J. (2017). A pathway linking smart growth neighborhoods to home-based pedestrian travel. Travel Behavior and Society, 7, 52–62. doi: 10.1016/j.tbs.2017.02.003

Ghana Statistical Service. (2002). 2000 Population and housing census. Special report on urban localities. Accra, Ghana: Ghana Statistical Services.

Ghana Statistical Service. (2013). 2010 population and housing census: National analytical report. Accra, Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service.

Gim, T. H. T. (2011). Influences on trip frequency according to travel purposes: A structural equation modeling approach in Seoul, South Korea. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 38(3), 429–446. doi: 10.1068/b36061

Gim, T. H. T. (2013). The relationships between land-use measures and travel behavior: A meta-analytic

approach. Transportation Planning and Technology, 36, 413–434. doi: 10.1080/03081060.2013.818272

Gim, T. H. T. (2015). The relationship between land use and automobile travel utility: A multiple indicators multiple causes approach. Transportation Research Part D, 41, 188–204.

Gim, T. H. T. (2016). Testing the reciprocal relationship between attitudes and land use in relation to trip frequencies: A nonrecursive model. International Regional Science Review, 39(2), 203–227. doi: 10.1177/0160017613512651

Gim, T. H. T. (2018). Land use, travel utility, and travel behavior: An analysis from the perspective of the positive utility of travel. Papers in Regional Science, 97(S1), S169–S192.

Gim, T. H. T. (2019). Examining the effects of residential self-selection on internal and external validity: An interaction moderation analysis using structural equation modeling. Transportation Letters, 11(5), 275–286.

Greenwald, M. J, & McNally, M. G. (2008). Land use influences on trip chaining in Portland, Oregon. UC Irvine: Center for Activity Systems Analysis.

Guerra, E. (2014). The built environment and car use in Mexico City: Is the relationship changing over time? Journal of Planning Education and Research, 34 (4), 394–408.

Hair, J. F., Hult, T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Los Angeles: SAGE.

Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19(2), 139–152.

Handy, S. L., Boarnet, M. G., Ewing, R., & Killingsworth, R. E. (2002). How the built environment affects physical activity: Views from urban planning. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 64–73.

Handy, S. L., Cao, X., & Mokhtarian, P. L. (2005). Correlation or causality between the built environment and travel behavior? Evidence from Northern California. Transportation Research D, 10, 427–444.

Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sinkovics, R. R. (2009). The use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing. Advances in International Marketing, 20, 277–319.

Heres-Del-Valle, D., & Niemeier, D. (2011). CO2 emissions: Are land-use changes enough for California to reduce VMT? Specification of a two-part model with instrumental variables. Transp. Res. Part B 45(1), 150–161.

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118

Huang, J., Lub, X. X., & Sellers, J. M. (2007). A global comparative analysis of urban form: Applying spatial metrics and remote sensing. Landscape and Urban Planning, 82, 184–197.

Kahneman, D., & Krueger, A. B. (2006). Of subjective well-being. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20 (1), 3–24.

Kahneman, D., Wakker, P. P., & Sarin, R. (1997). Back to Bentham? Explorations of experienced utility. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(2), 375–406. doi: 10.1162/003355397555235

Khattak, A., Wang, X., & Zhang, H. (2012). Incident management integration tool: Dynamically predicting incident durations, secondary incident occurrence and incident delays. IET Intelligent Transport Systems, 6(2), 204–214.

Krizek, K. J. (2003). Residential relocation and changes in urban travel: Does neighborhood-scale urban form matter. Journal of the American Planning Association, 69, 265–281.

Lee, S., & Lee, B. (2014). The influence of urban form on GHG emissions in the household sector. Energy Policy, 68, 634–549.

Lorenz, O. (2018). Does commuting matter to subjective well-being? Journal of Transport Geography, 66, 180–199. doi: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.11.019

Lowry, P. B., & Gaskin, J. (2014). Partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modeling (SEM) for building and testing behavioral causal theory: When to choose it and how to use it. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 57(2), 123–146. doi: 10.1109/TPC.2014.2312452

Ma, L., Dill, J., & Mohr, C. (2014). The objective versus the perceived environment: What matters for bicycling? Transportation, 41, 1135–1152.

Majid, M. R., Nordin, A. N., & Medugu, I. N. (2014). Influence of housing development designs on household vehicle miles traveled: A case of Iskandar Malaysia. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 33, 63–73.

Messenger, T., & Ewing, R. (1996). Transit-oriented development in the Sun Belt. Transportation Research Record, 1552, 145–153.

Mokhtarian, P. L., Papon, F., Goulard, M., & Diana, M. (2015). What makes travel pleasant and/or tiring? An investigation based on the French National Travel Survey. Transportation, 42(6), 1103–1128. doi: 10.1007/s11116-014-9557-y

Mouwen, A. (2015). Drivers of customer satisfaction with public transport services. Transportation

Research Part A, 78, 1–20. doi: 10.1016/j.tra.2015.05.005

Næss, P. (2011). 'New urbanism' or metropolitan-level centralization? A comparison of the influences of metropolitan-level and neighborhood-level urban form characteristics on travel behavior. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 4(1), 25–44.

Næss, P., & Jensen, O. B. (2004). Urban structure matters, even in a small town. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 47(1), 35–57. doi: 10.1080/0964056042000189790

Nakamura, K., & Hayashi, Y. (2013). Strategies and instruments for low-carbon urban transport: An international review on trends and effects. Transport Policy, 29, 264–274.

Nasri, A., & Zhang, L. (2012). Impact of metropolitan-level built environment on travel behavior. Transportation Research Record, 2323(1), 75–79. doi: 10.3141/2323-09

Newbold, K. B., Scott, D. M., Spinney, J. E. L., Kanaroglou, P., & Paez, A. (2005). Travel behavior within Canada’s older population: A cohort analysis. Journal of Transport Geography, 13(4), 340–351.

Okyere, S., Yang, J. Q., Aning, K. S., & Zhan, B. (2019). Review of sustainable multimodal freight transportation system in African developing countries: Evidence from Ghana. International Journal of Engineering Research in Africa, 41, 155–174. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/jera.41.155

Park, Y. (2017). Does new urbanist neighborhood design affect neighborhood turnover? Land Use Policy, 68, 552–562.

Park, Y., Huang, S.-K., & Newman, G. D. (2016). A statistical meta-analysis of the design components of new urbanism on housing prices. Journal of Planning Literature, 31(4), 435–451.

Saelens, B. E., Sallis, J. F., & Frank, L. D. (2003). Environmental correlates of walking and cycling: Findings from the transportation, urban design, and planning literatures. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25(2), 80–91. doi: 10.1207/S15324796ABM2502_03

Salon, D., Boarnet, M. G., & Mokhtarian, P. L. (2014). Quantifying the effect of local government actions on vehicle miles traveled. A report to the California Air Resources Board, Contract 09-343, 126 pp. Available online at www.arb.ca.gov.

Schafer, J. L. (1997). Analysis of incomplete multivariate data. New York: Chapman and Hall.

Schwanen, T., Dieleman, F. M., & Dijst, M. (2004). The impact of metropolitan structure on commute behavior in the Netherlands: A multilevel approach. Growth and Change, 35(3), 304–333. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2257.2004.00251.x

St-Louis, E., Manaugh, K., van Lierop, D., El-Geneidy, A. (2014). The happy commuter: A comparison of commuter satisfaction across modes. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behavior, 26, 160–170.

Stead, D. (2001). Relationships between land use, socioeconomic factors, and travel patterns in Britain. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 28, 499–528.

Stevens, M. R. (2017). Does compact development make people drive less? Journal of the American Planning Association, 83(1), 7–18. doi: 10.1080/01944363.2016.1240044

Stradling, S. G., Anable, J., & Carreno, M. (2007). Performance, importance and user disgruntlement: A six-step method for measuring satisfaction with travel modes. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 41(1), 98–106. doi: 10.1016/j.tra.2006.05.013

Sultana, S., & Weber, J. (2007). Journey-to-work patterns in the age of sprawl: Evidence from two midsize Southern metropolitan areas. Professional Geographer, 59(2), 193–208. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9272.2007.00607.x

Sung, H., Lee, S., & Cheon, S. (2015). Operationalizing Jane Jacobs’s urban design theory. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 35(2), 117–130. doi: 10.1177/0739456X14568021

UN-Habitat. (1999). Global report on human settlements. New York: Oxford University Press.

UN-Habitat. (2011). Cities and climate change. Global report on human settlements 2011. In United Nations Human Settlements Program. London, Washington D.C: Earthscan.

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision (ST/ESA/SER.A/420). New York: United Nations.

Van Acker, V., & Witlox, F. (2010). Car ownership as a mediating variable in car travel behavior research using a structural equation modelling approach to identify its dual relationship. Journal of Transport Geography, 18(1), 65–57.

Van Lierop, D., Badami, M. G., & El-Geneidy, A. E. (2017). What influences satisfaction and loyalty in public transport? A review of the literature. Transport Reviews, 38(1), 52–72. doi: 10.1080/01441647.2017.1298683

Van Wee, B. (2002). Land use and transport: Research and policy challenges. Journal of Transport Geography, 10, 256–271.

Van Wee, B., Baker, T., & Van der Hoorn, T. (1997). Office suites suit the railways: The effects of office locations to public transport nodal points on passenger transport. In PTRC European Transport Forum, Annual Meeting, Proceedings of Seminar E: Transportation Planning Methods, 1, Brunel University, London, Sept. 1–5.

Vinzi, V. E., Trinchera, L., & Amato, S. (2010). Handbook of Partial Least Squares. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-32827-8

Wold, H. O. A. (2006). Partial least squares. In Encyclopedia of statistical sciences 9. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Ye, H., He, X. Y., Song, Y., Li, X. H., Zhang, G. Q., Lin, T., & Xiao, L. S. (2015). A sustainable urban form: The challenges of compactness from the viewpoint of energy consumption and carbon emission. Energy and Buildings, 93, 90–98.

Zahabi, S.A.H., Miranda-Moreno, L., Patterson, Z., & Barla, P. (2015). Spatio-temporal analysis of car distance, greenhouse gases and the effect of built environment: A latent class regression analysis. Transportation Research Part A ,77, 1–13.

Zhang, L., Hong, J., Nasri, A., & Shen, Q. (2012). How built environment affects travel behavior: A comparative analysis of the connections between land use and vehicle miles traveled in US cities. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 5(3), 40–52.

Zhang, M., 2004. The role of land use in travel mode choice: Evidence from Boston and Hong Kong. Journal of the American Planning Association, 70 (3), 344–360.

Zhang, W. (2017). The interaction between land use and transportation in the era of shared autonomous vehicles: A simulation model. Ph.D. thesis. Georgia Institute of Technology, GA.